Non Conventional Energy Sources By Sukhatmepdf

Major Non-Conventional Energy Sources found in India!

Conventional energy sources (fossil fuels) in the world are reducing day by day, so the society is mostly dependent on non-conventional energy resources like solar energy, tidal energy, wind. Renewable & Non-Conventional Sources Of Energy With reference to two non-conventional energy sources called ‘coal bed methane’ and ‘shale gas’, consider the following ‘statements: Coal bed methane is the pure methane gas extracted from coal seams, while shale gas is a mixture of propane and butane only that can be extracted from fine-grained sedimentary rocks.

With increasing demand for energy and with fast depleting conventional sources of energy such as coal, petroleum, natural gas, etc. the non-conventional sources of energy such as energy from sun, wind, biomass, tidal energy, geo-thermal energy and even energy from waste material are gaining importance. This energy is abundant, renewable, pollution free and eco-friendly.

Image Courtesy : lunar.thegamez.net/greenenergyimage/non-conventional-1462.jpg

It can be more conveniently supplied to urban, rural and even remote areas. Thus it is capable of solving the twin problems of energy supply in a decentralised manner and helping in sustaining cleaner environment. It is the energy of the future. No wonder, non-conventional energy is fast catching the imagination of the people in India.

The importance of renewable energy was recognised in the country in the early 1970s. The renewable energy programme started with the establishment of the Department of Non-conventional Energy Sources (DNES) in 1982. Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA) was set up in 1987.

In 1992, DNES was converted into Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources (MNES) which has taken several steps to create a suitable atmosphere for harnessing non-conventional sources of energy. India has today one of the largest programmes for renewable energy.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

The activities cover all major renewable energy sources, such as biogas, biomass, solar, wind, small hydropower and other emerging technologies. Several renewable energy systems and devices are commercially available. The renewable energy programmes cover the entire gamut of technologies, including improved wood stoves, biogas plant, biomass gasifier, solar thermal and solar photovoltaic systems, wind mill, со-generation, small hydropower, energy recovery from urban/municipal and industrial wastes, geothermal energy, hydrogen energy, electric vehicles and bio-fuels, etc.

According to energy experts, India’s non- conventional energy potential is estimated at about 1, 95,000 MW. An estimate of 31 per cent of this potential comes from sun, 30 per cent from ocean-thermal, 26 per cent from bio-fuel and 13 per cent from wind.

During the last two decades, several renewable energy technologies have been developed and deployed in villages and cities. Some of the achievements are given in Table 26.17 along with the estimated potential:

Table 26.17 Renewable Energy Potential and Achievements:

sqk = Square kilometre sq m = Square meter MW = Mega-watt

kW = Kilowatt kWp = Kilo watt peak * including Biomass Gasifier

Solar Energy:

Sun is the source of all energy on the earth. India, being a tropical country, is well endowed with plenty of solar energy. Most parts of the country have bright sun-shine throughout the year except a brief monsoon period.

As our country is literally soaked in sunshine, exploitation of solar energy is an extremely important component of renewable energy sector through both the thermal and photovoltaic routes for a variety of applications like cooking, water heating, drying of farm produce, water pumping, home and street lighting, power generation for meeting decentralised requirements in villages, schools, hospitals, etc. India receives solar energy equivalent to over 5,000 trillion kWh per year which is far more than the total energy consumption of the country.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

The daily average of solar energy incident over India varies from 4 to 7 kWh/m² depending upon the location. Solar water heaters, solar refrigeration, solar drying, street lighting, cooking, pumping, power generation, photo­voltaic solar cells, solar ponds, etc. are becoming very popular in different parts of the country.

Although solar energy can be gainfully used in any part of the country except some higher areas in the Himalayan ranges, the Thar Desert of Rajasthan holds great promise in this direction. Scientists are of the opinion that the vast expanse of the Thar Desert could well earn the distinction of being the biggest solar power house of the world by the year 2010 producing 10,000 MW of electricity.

A major chunk of the desert will be declared as ‘Solar Energy Enterprise Zone’ like the one in Nevada (USA). Parts of Kathiawar peninsula. Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Jharkhand, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab also hold great possibilities of harnessing solar energy. Map in Figure 26.10 shows annual mean daily global solar electric conversion potential in India.

Solar radiant energy can be used through thermal as well as photovoltaic routes. Both solar, thermal and photovoltaic applications have large potential in the country.

Solar Thermal Energy:

Soaked in abundant sunshine, India offers an excellent opportunity for converting solar energy to thermal energy. Several solar thermal technologies have been developed. These include solar water heaters, solar cookers, solar heaters, solar distillation systems, etc.

Research and development in the field of solar thermal energy is continuously being pursued in the country for over three decades. As a result, several products have been developed indigenously. To promote these products, a subsidy-based thermal extension programme was launched in 1984 and continued upto 1993.

This initiative had resulted in disseminating the solar thermal products in different parts of the country. The main objectives of the Solar Thermal Energy Programme, being implemented by the Ministry of Non- conventional Energy Source (MNES), are market development, commercialization and utilization of solar thermal systems for the fulfilment of heat energy requirements of different applications in domestic, institutional and industrial sectors. It has five components viz. Solar Thermal Extension Programme, Solar Cooker Programme, Solar Buildings Programme, Research and Development (R&D) Programme and Aditya Solar Shops.

Solar Water heating is one of the main technologies being promoted by MNES. Water heating technology for low temperature range is mainly based on flat plate collectors, which absorb solar radiation and raise the temperature of water upto 80°C.

This hot water can be used for various applications in homes, hotels, hostels, restaurants and hospitals. Hot water at this temperature is used in a number of industries also. Solar water systems (solar geysers) of capacities ranging from 100 to 300 litres per day are suited for domestic applications. Larger systems from hundreds to thousands of litres are used in commercial and industrial establishments.

Due to the efforts made by MNES during the last several years both the technology and the manufacturing base for solar water heating is now well established. Although the initial cost of solar water heating system is rather high, the system pays back the investment within 3 to 6 years depending on the fuels substituted.

The technical potential of solar water heaters in the country has been estimated to be 140 million sq metres of collector area. With only about 0.80 million sq m collector are developed till 31 March, 2004, there is an enormous possibility for harvesting solar energy through this technology. With the increasing acceptability in the residential sector, solar water heaters can be set up in multistoried residential flats for meeting the hot water requirement.

The use of solar water heaters saves electricity and contributes to a reduction in peak load demand. It has been estimated that the use of 1000 domestic solar water heating systems of 100 litres capacity each can contribute to a peak load shaving of 1 MW.

Solar air heaters and dryers can conveniently be used both in industry and agriculture. Already a number of solar drying systems have been installed in the country and these are helping to save significant amounts of conventional fuels.

Among the industries using these are tea, food processing, dal mills and spice manufacturers. Solar air heaters are also being used for space heating in the cold regions. Various types of collectors have been fabricated and are currently under use.

Solar cooker is a simple device which cooks food with the help of solar energy and saves conventional fuels to a significant extent. On clear sunny days, it is possible to cook both noon and evening meals with a solar cooking device. Different types of solar cookers have been developed in the past, which include box solar cooker, steam cooker, solar meal maker with heat storage and concentrating type community cooker.

The Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES) had been promoting the box solar cooker in the country till 1993-94 due to its various advantages over the others. Thereafter, different designs of solar cooker have been propagated under its market-oriented and demonstration programmes.

Currently two types of cookers, viz., box solar cooker and concentration type cooker are popular among the users. Box solar cooker can cook meals for a family of 4 to 5 members and saves 3 to 4 LPG cylinders in a year on full use. If provided with electrical back-up, it can be used during non-sunshine hours also within the kitchen with nominal consumption of electricity.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

Concentrating type solar cooker is of three broad types, viz., dish solar cooker, community solar cooker and solar steam cooking system. Dish solar cooker is a fast cooking device which can cook food for 10 to 15 people under sun. It saves upto 10 LPG cylinders per year on full use in small establishments.

Community solar cooker (Schefler) can cook food for around 40 people inside the kitchen and saves 35 LPG cylinders per year on full use in community kitchens. Solar steam cooking system can cook food for thousands of people using steam inside the kitchen in very short time It is useful for installation at ashrams, temples, churches, gurudwaras, etc.

A solar cooking system has been installed in Shirdi to cater to 3,000 devotees every day. World’s largest system with a capacity to prepare food for 15,000 pilgrims was also set up by the Tirumala Tirupathi Devasthanam in October, 2002.

Solar cooking has been picking up fast with a number of households and institutions, especially those attracting large number of visitors, evincing interest in installing different solar cooking systems depending upon the number of persons for whom they have to prepare food every day. As on 31st March, 2004, as many as 5, 55,000 box type solar cookers, 10 concentrating type community cookers and 2,000 Schefler dish type solar cookers were in use in India.

Solar Photovoltaic (SPV) technology enables direct conversion of sunlight into electricity without any moving parts and without causing pollution. Photovoltaic systems and power plants have emerged as viable power sources for applications such as lighting, water pumping and telecommunication and are being increasingly used for meeting the electrical energy needs in remote villages, hamlets and hospitals, besides households in the hilly, forest, desert and island.

During the past few years, many organisations have started using SPV systems for a variety of applications on commercial basis as these are found to be economically viable as compared to other alternatives. Recently a programme on the deployment of SPV water pumping systems for agriculture and related uses has been implemented.

The approximate potential of SPV system is 20 MW per sq km. As on 31st March, 2004 as many as 5,102 solar street lighting systems, 3, 07,763 home lighting systems, 5, 38,718 solar lanterns, 851 kWp power plants and 6,452 solar PV pumps were installed in different parts of the country. As on 31st July 2005, 2,365 houses in Delhi run on solar energy.

Efforts are being made to popularise the use of solar greenhouse for growing vegetables during off-season in cold and dry areas of Leh and Kargil. Solarised huts are being designed in cold areas of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh to keep the buildings warm.

Wind Energy:

Wind is another important source of non-conventional energy. The cost inputs are only at the initial stage and the power generation starts immediately after commissioning. Once the generation starts, cost-free power is available for about 20 years because there is no recurring cost on fuel.

India has vast wind potential and wind-farms have emerged as a viable option with the advancement of wind technology in the country. Estimates by the Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources (MNES) place the ultimate wind energy potential in India at 45,600 MW.

The technical potential, assuming 20 per cent grid penetration, is estimated at 13,000 MW. With the augmentation of grid capacity, this estimate will increase. Another study conducted by the Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI) estimated the potential of wind resource along the coastal regions in the range of 50,000 mW.

The first wind farms in India were installed in 1986 in coastal areas in Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Orissa. Some of the states have joined hands with centre in coming out with a number of promotional incentives. Since 1985, the MNES has carried out an extensive wind monitoring and mapping programme to identify better sites and to assess the resource potential. The programme has been implemented in a very systematic manner.

The compiled data has been analysed and is being published with the ultimate objective of preparing a wind atlas of the country. This data has been utilised in identifying some excellent sites for windfarms. Map in Figure 26.11 shows that coastal areas in Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal as well as vast areas of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan are in a much better position with respect to wind power resources.

The map shows wind resources in 10 states only. A better picture will emerge as further studies are conducted in other states also. State-wise gross and technical potential are given in Table 26.18 and Figure 26.12.

Table 26.18 Wind Power Potential:

An annual mean wind power density greater than 150 watt per square metre has been recorded at 219 wind monitoring stations covering 13 states and Union Territories, viz., Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, region are Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Sikkim and Tripura. Wind power growth from 1992 to 2004 is shown in Table 26.17.

(a) The figures are based on the assumption of 1.0% of land availability for wind power generation in potential areas.

(b) The technical potential as on 31-03-2001, assuming 20% grid penetration. The grid capacities include the share of capacity allocated to States from the power stations of the Central Sector power generating utilities.

The largest installation of wind turbines in country so far has been in Muppandal- Perungudi near Kanniyakumari in Tamil Nadu. With an aggregate capacity of about 425 MW, this represents one of the largest concentrations of wind farm capacity at a single location next only to that of California (U.S.A.).

Another wind turbine has been set up at Kayattar in Tamil Nadu. Similarly, out of a total capacity of about 240 MW in Maharashtra, commercial wind power projects with a total capacity of about 200 MW have been commissioned in Satara district.

Table 26.19 Wind Power Development in India (MW):

The highest capacity utilisation factor of 39% has been achieved in a commercial project at Jogimatti in Karnataka. The other wind farms of 28 MW are located at Lamba and Mandvi in Gujarat. About 5,000 MW of power could be generated through wind mills in Gujarat alone where there is a near constant wind flow averaging 20 km per hour with the added benefit of there being little danger from cyclones.

Rajasthan is endowed with a gross wind power potential of 5,400 MW which is higher than that of Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra; the current leaders in wind power generation. However, the technical potential of this state is 885 MW which is lower than that of Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra.

Rajasthan can be expected to emerge as a significant wind power generating state in the country. The commercial wind power project of 2.76 MW capacity installed at Jaisalmer has achieved a capacity utilisation factor of 27% despite being in a moderately winding location.

As on 31 March 2004 a capacity of 2,483 MW had been added through wind, which places India in the fifth position globally after Germany, the USA, Denmark and Spain. Most of this capacity has come about through commercial projects. Over eight billion units of electricity has been fed to various state grids from these projects.

Biogas:

Biogas is based upon the use of dung to produce gas which is used as domestic fuel especially in the rural areas. This technique is based on the decomposition of organic matter in the absence of air to yield gas consisting of methane (55%) and carbon dioxide (45%) which can be used as a source of energy.

This energy is piped for use as cooking and lighting fuel in specially designed stoves and lamps respectively. It can also be used for replacing diesel oil in dual fuel engines for generation of motive power and electricity. The left-over digested slurry serves as enriched manure. Biogas technology is taking deep roots in rural India because of certain inherent advantages.

Biogas has higher thermal efficiency when compared with kerosene, firewood, dung and charcoal. It is observed that the thermal efficiency of gobar gas is 60 per cent while dung, which is commonly used in villages for cooking, has only 11 per cent thermal efficiency. Thus the use of gobar gas fuel is advantageous from the point of view of not only fuel efficiency but also fuel saving.

Biogas technology has a bright future in India. It has been estimated that 1 to 1.5 million tonnes of waste dung is available per annum in the country. If two-third of this quantity is used to produce biogas, it could yield 22,425 million cubic metre of biogas which could save 33,904 million litres of kerosene. Currently, it saves about 70 lakh tonnes of fuel wood annually.

Further, it could yield manure equivalent to 14 million tonnes of nitrogen, 13 million tonnes of phosphate and 0.9 million tonnes of potash. The success of biogas technology has brought about a sort of Brown Revolution in rural India.

Although biogas plants and improved chullahs have been disseminated in India since 1940s, they picked up only in early 1980s. The National Project on Biogas Development (NPBD) was taken up in Central Sector during 1981-82 on country wide basis. It seeks to provide clean and convenient fuel for cooking and lighting purposes in rural areas, produce enriched organic manure, improve sanitation and hygiene by way of linking household biogas plants with toilets and reduce the drudgery of women.

By 2000- 01, 32.75 lakh rural families were benefited representing coverage of 27 per cent of the estimated potential of 12 million plants. State wise estimated potential and plants installed with percentage coverage is shown in Table 26.20.

Table 26.20 National Project on Biogas Development (State-wise Coverage of Estimated Potential up to 2000-01):

Besides family size biogas plants, the Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources are also promoting the setting up of community, institutional and night soil based biogas plants. The Community and Institutional Biogas Plants (CBP/IBP) Programme was initiated in 1982-83. Under this programme, the biogas is generally used for motive power and generation of electricity, besides meeting the cooking fuel requirements.

A component on biogas plants linked with community toilet complexes was added in the year 1993-94 to facilitate onsite treatment of human waste. A total of 3,484 plants, including 600 night soil-based biogas plants (NBPs) had been installed upto 2000-01. The state-wise number of community, institutional and night soil-based biogas plants set up is given in Table 26.21.

Table 26.21 CBP/IBP/NBP Programme (State-wise Number of Plants Installed up to 2000-01):

As on 31st March 2004, there were 3.65 million family size Biogas plants and 3,950 Community/Institutional Biogas plants functioning in India. This places India next only to China with respect to biogas utilisation.

National Programme on Improved Chulhas:

The National Programme on Improved Chulhas (NPIC) was initiated in 1986-87 with the following objectives:

i. Fuel wood conservation;

ii. Elimination/reduction of smoke;

iii. Reduction in drudgery of women and children from cooking in smoky kitchen and collection of fuel wood;

iv. Environmental upgradation and check on deforesta­tion; and

v. Employment generation in rural areas.

Improved chullahs that do not emit smoke and use less wood are fast replacing traditional cookstoves in rural areas ushering in what is described as smokeless revolution in different parts of the country. While the traditional chullahs have thermal efficiency of 8-10 per cent, the improved chullahs have minimum efficiency of 20-25 per cent. An improved chullah saves on an average about 375 kg of bio­fuel and 3 litres of kerosene per year under field conditions.

Besides, an improved chullah results in a saving of 45 minutes to one hour per family which would otherwise be spent on collecting and processing the fuel material, cleaning of utensils and cooking. The improved chullah also helps in making the environment inside the kitchen smoke – free, thereby reducing the incidences of eye and lung diseases amongst women and children. The NPIC is also generating employment in rural areas for women and the rate of 0.3 person day per chullah.

As on 31 March 2004, 35.2 million improved wood stoves (chullahs) have been promoted which places India next only to China in this respect. This has resulted in saving of about 13.2 lakh tonnes of bio-fuels and 1.6 lakh litres of kerosene per year. However, there is still a long way to go to achieve the potential coverage, which is estimated at 120 million rural and semi-urban households.

Biomass Gasifier Programme:

Biomass gasification is a thermo-chemical process in which fuel gas is formed as a result of partial combustion of biomass, such as wood waste, crop residues, agro-­industrial wastes, etc. (or any organic material). The main advantage of the gasification technique is that it enables solid biomass to be converted into a more convenient and versatile fuel.

The produce gas could either be burnt directly for thermal applications or be used for replacing diesel oil in dual­-fuel engines for mechanical and electrical applications. Its relevance in today’s world is greater than in the past as it provides an option to reduce Green House gas emissions because biomass can be CO2 neutral in terms of emission.

Gasification has vast potential for rural lighting purposes. The social and environmental benefits of biomass power for long-term sustainability have been accepted. The gasifier programme in India was launched in 1986 by M.N.E.S. based on 3.7 kW wood based gasifiers.

Non Conventional Energy Sources

Biomass has assumed great importance in rural India. It has been estimated that India has about 93.69 million hectares of waste lands out of which 20 million hectares is productive non-forest land which would be able to produce 400 million tonnes of fuel wood per year equivalent to 60,000 MW of power.

Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Resources has initiated biomass programme with a view to increase fast growing short rotation fuel wood species, suitable for plantation under the given set of agro-climatic conditions.

This aims at increasing the productivity to about 40 tonnes per hectare per year as compared to the average forest tree production rate of 0.5 tonne per hectare per year. Biomass yields ranging from 12 to 37 tonnes per hectare per year have been achieved by established Biomass Research Centres.

Biomass gasifier systems of upto 500 kW capacity based on fuel-wood have been developed indigenously and are being manufactured in the country. Similarly, the technology for producing biomass briquettes from agricultural residues and forest litter at both household and industrial levels has been developed. The exploitable potential for power generation from agro residues, agro-industrial resources (excluding bagasse) and forestry residues has been estimated at 16,000 MW on a conservative basis.

Be it a small-scale unit or a remote island, the biomass gasifier has come as a saviour cutting down on the consumption of precious fossil fuels on the one hand and bringing about economic development on the other.

Thanks to the initiatives and programmes of the MNES, techno-economic viability of biomass gasifiers has been demonstrated and gasifier systems for varied applications have been deployed in different parts of the country. In the process India has emerged a world leader in the development and deployment of gasifier technology and systems.

Gasifier plants have been set up in Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Nagaland and some other states. In certain areas gasifier plants have played a vital role for meeting the energy requirements of the people living in remote and inaccessible areas.

It is difficult to extend grid electricity to Chhottomallakhali Island in the Sunderbans area of South 24 Parganas district of West Bengal due to prohibitive cost involved in crossing various rivers and cracks.

The switching one of the 4 x 125 KW power plant based on biomass gasifier on 29th June, 2001 has completely changed the lives of inhabitants of this remote island. The plant is catering to the electricity needs of domestic, commercial and industrial users, drinking water supply, hospital, ice factory, etc.

As on 31 March, 2004, 60.20 MW biomass gasifier systems were installed in various states.

Cogeneration:

Cogeneration is the simultaneous production of power either electrical or mechanical and useful thermal energy from a single fuel source. A cogeneration system is an integra­tion of various components (energy conversion system, balance-of-plant system, heat source, heat pump, etc.) into a total system which provides the electrical and thermal requirements of a specific industrial process.

There have been very few studies undertaken to estimate the potential for cogeneration in India. However, some surveys conducted in different industries have revealed some interesting facts.

For example, nearly 30 per cent of the electricity used in the pulp and paper industry is cogenerated with stream production in paper mills. In fertilizer industry, almost all the energy requirements of the ammonia and urea plants are met with steam generated through high pressure waste heat- boilers. According to a survey of 300 industrial units, conducted by Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI) in 1993, there exists a cogeneration poten­tial of 7,574 MW in the country (see Table 26.22)

Table 26.22 Cogeneration Potential Estimates by TERI:

Further, TERI has estimated that cogeneration in India will increase to 20,997 MW in 2006, 43,000 MW in 2011 and 61,621 MW in the year 2021.

It is clear from the table that over two-thirds of the cogeneration potential is accounted for by sugar industry alone. Bagasse based cogeneration programme, launched in January 1994, envisaged creation of 300 MW power generation capacity during the Eighth Plan.

The Tata Energy Research Institution has estimated the cogeneration power potential based on bagasse at 5,100 MW. The programme is targeted at around 420 existing and around 90 new sugar mills.

Already ten mills have commissioned co-generation projects having total exploitable power to the tune of 29 MW. This brings out the extent of untapped potential. The potential is also significant in paper and textile industries. Considering the gains from cogeneration, the Government of India is giving several incentives for its development.

However, Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources puts the bagasse-based co-generation potential at 3500 MW bringing the total biomass power potential to 19,500 MW (See Fig. 26.13).

So far, a total capacity of 614 MW biomass based cogeneration power systems has been installed in the country. Projects of a capacity of 643 MW are under installation.

Small Hydro Power:

Generation of electricity from small sized hydropower sources is a low cost, environment friendly and renewable source of energy. Small and mini hydel projects have the potential to provide energy in remote and hilly areas where extension of grid system is un­economical.

Though the technology is over a century old, it has become popular only in the last few decades. In India the mini and micro-­hydroelectricity project (MMHP) systems together are treated as small hydro power (SHP) system. They are classified into following three categories.

1. Micro hydro: less than 100 kW.

2. Mini hydro: 101-2000 kW (unit size upto 1 MW).

3. Small hydro: 2001-15,000 kW (unit size upto 5 MW).

Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources (MNES) has been responsible for small and mini hydro projects upto 3 MW station capacity since 1989. The subject of small hydro between 3.25 MW has been assigned to MNES with effect from 29th November, 1999.

India has an estimated small hydro potential of about 15,000 MW. By 2001-02, as many as 420 small hydroelectric projects (up to 25 MW capacity each) with an aggregate capacity of 1,423 MW had been installed. Besides these, 187 projects with a total capacity of nearly 521 MW were under implementation. By 31 March 2004, a total of 1,602 MW capacity had been set up.

In addition, projects aggregating to 569 MW capacity are under various stages of implementation. This means that there is large untapped potential and in this context. Identification of all the potential sites, besides systematic detailed survey and investigation of these sites is of great significance.

Realising this the Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources has created a database for potential sites suitable for small, mini and micro hydel projects by collecting information from various sources. A detailed exercise was undertaken to prepare zonal plans for 13 participating states of the Himalayan and Sub- Himalayan region.

Models have been developed taking into account the regional flow duration curves, geological and seismological data, vegetation cover, etc. and using the latest techniques of Geographic Information System (GIS) for identification of potential sites. The data base created by the MNES upto 2001- 02 includes 4096 sites with potential capacity aggregating 10,071 MW.

The Ministry has launched a comprehensive state-wise study to identify the potential sites for small hydro projects upto 25 MW capacity each during the 10th Five Year Plan. The details of state-wise small hydro sites identified upto 2001-02 are given in Table 26.23.

Table 26.23 State-wise Indentified Small Hydel Sites upto 25 MW Capacity (2001-02):

Thirteen states in India, namely Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, West Bengal, Maharashtra and Rajasthan have announced policies for setting up Commercial Small Hydro Power (SHP) projects through private sector participation. Vigorous efforts are being made to promote small hydel projects in North- Eastern region.

Geothermal Energy:

There are vast possibilities of developing and exploiting geothermal energy in India. About 340 hot spring localities have been identified; many of them have temperature nearing boiling point. Extensive surveys are being conducted to develop geothermal energy for direct heat and power generation.

Assessment of Geothermal energy potential of selected sites in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh has been/is being undertaken. A five kW geothermal pilot power plant has been commissioned at Manikaran in Kullu district of Himachal Pradesh.

A potential of 4-5 MW. geo­thermal power has been estimated in Puga Valley of Ladakh in J&K. Plan to exploit this potential has been finalised. Sanction for installation of a geothermal power plant at Tattapani geothermal fields in Chhattisgarh has been granted. A project on mushroom cultivation and poultry farming using geothermal power is under implementation at Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu.

Tidal Energy:

It is estimated that India possesses 8000-9000 MW of tidal energy potential. The Gulf of Khambhat is the best suited area with about 7000 MW potential of tidal energy. This is followed by Gulf of Kachchh (1000 MW) and Sunderbans (100 MW). A 900 MW tidal power plant is proposed to be set up in the Gulf of Kachchh at the cost of Rs. 4,000 crore.

Wave Energy:

Wave energy potential in India is estimated at about 40,000 MW. Coastal areas can get special benefit from this energy. One wave energy power plant of 150 kW (maximum) has been installed at Vzhinjam near Thiruvananthapuram. Another one MW wave energy plant is being set up in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion:

India’s ocean thermal energy is estimated at 50,000 MW. The first ever plant for ocean thermal energy conversion with a capacity of 100 MW. costing about Rs. 750 crore is proposed to be set up off the coast of Tamil Nadu.

Energy from Waste:

Generation of waste is inevitable in many human activities. In nature, a balance is maintained as the waste generated by animals and human beings serve as nourishment for the plant life. So long as this natural cycle is maintained, the question of pollution due to waste does not arise.

Non Conventional Resources

However, with increasing industrialisation, urbanisation and changes in the pattern of life, which are inevitable in any process of economic growth, waste causes damage to environment unless it is very carefully managed.

The quantity of waste generated in Class-I cities of the country has been estimated to be about 30 million tones of municipal solid waste and about 4,400 million cubic metres of sewage per annum. In addition, large quantities of waste is produced by industries, such as sugar mills, distilleries, pulp and paper mills, dairies, slaughterhouses, tanneries, pharmaceutical industries, etc. These estimates translate into a total potential of about 2,700 MW.

Non Conventional Energy Sources With Focus On Solar Energy

The National Programme on ‘Energy Recovery from Urban, Municipal and Industrial Wastes’ aims at promoting technologies for processing, treatment of the wastes with attendant benefits of waste reduction, abatement of environmental pollution and recovery of useful energy/power. Twenty-five ‘waste-to-energy’ projects for generation of biogas/power for captive use/sale to grid, aggregating to 41.43 MW capacity, have been commissioned till March 2004.

Alternative energy has received more attention in the national and international media as the pollution from fossil fuels becomes more apparent. Global warming and declining air quality are two effects of society's dependence on fossil fuels. By introducing alternative energy sources into your own daily life, you can help save the environment and reduce your use of the decreasingly affordable petroleum-based fuels.

Potential

Relegated to rural areas and nature nuts in the past, alternative energy is now a growing option for homeowners and businesses who want to be eco-friendly and save money at the same time. Options for alternative energy include wind power, water power, plant power, solar power, and the less eco-friendly nuclear power. Using alternative energy can prevent pollution from fossil fuels and save money on heating and electric bills. Advancing technology in extracting energy from renewable resources continues to develop to make alternative energy more compact and more efficient to collect.

Harnessing the Wind

Wind power is an inexpensive option for collection alternative electric power. Wind power works by collecting the energy from the wind with a rotor that turns and powers a generator. The electricity is then stored or used to power machinery, lighting, and even homes. Wind power is convenient even if you don't have much land, but is not recommended for city areas where nearby buildings will block most of the wind.

Wading Hydropower

Non Conventional Energy Sources By Sukhatme Pdf

Hydropower is a powerful option for climates with a running water source. Hydropower is collected in one of a few ways. One way to collect hydropower is to heat water into steam and use the steam to power a generator. Another way to collect hydropower is to use a water wheel to collect the kinetic energy in a running river or stream. An emerging technology may allow hydropower to be collected from the movement of water in pipes in a municipal water source. Developing hydropower machines that collect the energy from running pipes offers a more compact hydropower option for city areas with little running water.

Non Conventional

Biopower: Grass

What Is Non Conventional Energy

According to the U.S. Department of Energy, grasses offer a glimmer of hope in the search for a cheap, renewable energy source. Switchgrass has received media attention for its popularity among former oil businesspeople who wish to look to a cleaner, greener energy future. Switchgrass is a fast-growing grass that burns at a high temperature, supplying a large degree of heat energy. Energy scientists hope that technological developments in 'gassification' will allow switchgrass to be converted into fuels previously derived only from fossil fuels such as gasoline and diesel fuel.

Trees: Shady and Renewable

You may not think of trees as an alternate source of energy, but used responsibly, you can use trees to produce electricity that is cleaner and more environmentally responsible than fossil fuels. According to the U.S. Department of Energy, like switchgrass, you can burn trees to produce heat energy. You can use wood pellets to power heat stoves, and they can heat steam, which can be converted to electricity. If forests are replanted properly, wood will be available for lumber and fuel for generations.